Questões Militares Sobre aspectos linguísticos | linguistic aspects em inglês

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    One pathway for converting explicit to implicit knowledge is suggested by skill acquisition theory, a branch of cognitive science studying how people develop skills. In this theory, knowledge is first seen to be declarative (conscious); then, through practice and the application of learning strategies, declarative knowledge becomes proceduralized so that it becomes automatic. Automatic processes are quick and do not require attention or conscious awareness. Many second/ foreign language learners memorize and practice vocabulary items or “chunks” of language such as greetings, idioms or collocations. Frequent practice in using these forms helps the language items to become automatic in the sense that the learner can use them quickly and unconsciously.

    Pienemann (1989) proposes that second/ foreign language learners will not acquire a new structure until they are developmentallly ready to do so. If there were no connection between the development of explicit knowledge about a grammar point and the eventual restructuring of the unconscious linguistic system to accommodate the point in the learner’s interlanguage, then, indeed, grammar instruction would not be of much use. However, it has been suggested that there is a connection, so grammar instruction is ultimately useful. Further, practice of language points can lead to automatization, thus bypassing natural order teachability considerations.

(FOTOS, Sandra. Cognitive Approaches to Grammar Instruction.

In Marianne Celce-Murcia. 3rd ed. Teaching English as a second or foreign

language. 3rd edition. Boston, Massachusstes: Heinle&Heinle. 2002.

Adaptado274)

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    Morley (1999) has outlined four important goals for pronunciation instruction: functional intelligibility, functional communicability, increased self-confidence, and speech monitoring abilities.

    For our purposes, intelligibility is defined as spoken English in which an accent, if present, is not distracting to the listener. Since learners rarely achieve an accent-free pronunciation, we are setting our students up for failure if we strive for nativelike accuracy. Eradication of an accent should not be our goal; in fact, some practitioners use the term accent addition as opposed to accent reduction to acknowledge the individual’s first language (L1) identity without demanding it be sublimated in the new second language (L2).

    Functional communicability is the learner’s ability to function successfully within the specific communicative situations he or she faces. And, as they gain communicative skill, they also need to gain confidence in their ability to speak and be understood.

    Bv teaching learners to pay attention to their own speech as well as that of others, we help our learners make better use of the input they receive. Good learners “attend” to certain aspects of the speech they hear and then try to imitate it. Speech monitoring activities help to focus learners’ attention on such features both in our courses and beyond them.

(Goodwin, Janet. Teaching Pronunciation. In Marianne Celce-Murcia. 3rd ed. Teaching English as a second or foreign language. 3rd edition. Boston, Massachusstes: Heinle&Heinle. 2002. Adaptado)

Leia o texto, para responder à questão. 

    Morley (1999) has outlined four important goals for pronunciation instruction: functional intelligibility, functional communicability, increased self-confidence, and speech monitoring abilities.

    For our purposes, intelligibility is defined as spoken English in which an accent, if present, is not distracting to the listener. Since learners rarely achieve an accent-free pronunciation, we are setting our students up for failure if we strive for nativelike accuracy. Eradication of an accent should not be our goal; in fact, some practitioners use the term accent addition as opposed to accent reduction to acknowledge the individual’s first language (L1) identity without demanding it be sublimated in the new second language (L2).

    Functional communicability is the learner’s ability to function successfully within the specific communicative situations he or she faces. And, as they gain communicative skill, they also need to gain confidence in their ability to speak and be understood.

    Bv teaching learners to pay attention to their own speech as well as that of others, we help our learners make better use of the input they receive. Good learners “attend” to certain aspects of the speech they hear and then try to imitate it. Speech monitoring activities help to focus learners’ attention on such features both in our courses and beyond them.

(Goodwin, Janet. Teaching Pronunciation. In Marianne Celce-Murcia. 3rd ed. Teaching English as a second or foreign language. 3rd edition. Boston, Massachusstes: Heinle&Heinle. 2002. Adaptado)

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    The disjunction between method as conceptualized by theorists and method as conducted by teachers is the direct consequence of the inherent limitations of the concept of method itself. First and foremost, methods are based on idealized concepts geared toward idealized contexts. Since language learning and teaching needs, wants, and situations are unpredictably numerous, no idealized method can visualize all the variables in advance in order to provide situation-specific suggestions that practicing teachers need to tackle the challenges they are confronted with every day of their professional lives.

    Not anchored in any specific learning and teaching context, and caught up in the whirlwind of fashion, methods tend to wildly drift from one theoretical extreme to the other. At one time, grammatical drills were considered the right way to teach; at another, they were given up in favor of communicative tasks. At one time, explicit error correction was not only favored but considered necessary; at another, it was frowned upon. These extreme swings create conditions where certain aspects of learning and teaching get overly emphasized while certain others are utterly ignored, depending on which way the pendulum swings.

    The limitations of the concept of method gradually led to statements such as “the term method is a label without substance” (Clarke, 1983, p. 109), and that it has “diminished rather than enhanced our understanding of language teaching” (Pennycook, 1989, p. 597). This realization has resulted in a widespread dissatisfaction with the concept of method.

(Kumaravadivelu, B. Beyond Methods: Macrostrategies for language teaching. Haven and London: Yale University Press. 2003. Adaptado)

Multilingualism needs to be understood not so much in terms of separate monolingualisms (adding English to one or more other languages) but rather in much more fluid terms. We can start to think of ELT classrooms in terms of principled polycentrism (Pennycook, 2014). This is not the polycentrism of a World Englishes focus, with its established or fixed norms of regional varieties of English, but a more fluid concept, based on the idea that students are developing complex repertoires of multilingual and multimodal resources. This enables us to think in terms of ELT as developing resourceful speakers who are able to use available language resources and to shift between styles, discourses, registers and genres. This brings the recent sociolinguistic emphasis on repertoires and resources into conversation with a focus on the need to learn how to negotiate and accommodate, rather than to be proficient in one variety of English. So an emerging goal of ELT may be less towards proficient native-speaker-like speakers (which has always been a confused and misguided goal), and to think instead in terms of resourceful speakers (Pennycook, 2012) who can draw on multiple linguistic and semiotic resources.

(Pennycook, A. The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language. London and New York: Routledge. 2017. Adaptado)

The regional accentism that secretly affects life prospects

        At age 22, Gav Murphy was living outside his home country Wales for the first time, working in his first job in media production in London. His South Wales Valleys accent was very thick, he recalls. He’d say ‘tha’ rather than ‘that’, for instance. He was perfectly understandable; yet a senior colleague overseeing his work insisted Murphy change his accent so all the broadcasters sounded uniform on air. The effects of adaptation were far-reaching. “It sort of broke my brain a little bit,” says Murphy. “I thought about literally every single thing I was saying, literally every time I was saying it. Moving to standard English was just laborious.”

        Foreign-accent discrimination is rampant in professional settings. But discrimination can also extend to certain native speakers of a language, because of the judgements attached to particular accents. While many employers are becoming very sensitive to other types of bias, accent bias remains challenging to root out. But it doesn’t have to be this way.

       While the cognitive shortcuts that contribute to accent bias may be universal, the degree of accent awareness and prejudice varies greatly. For instance, “The UK has a very, very fine-tuned system of accent prestige,” says Devyani Sharma, a sociolinguist at Queen Mary University of London. “It’s a combination of a very monolingual past, where English developed as a symbol of the nation, and the very acute social class hierarchy historically.” She adds that overt accent bias in the US is based more on race, whereas in the UK, it’s more tied to class.

        In some cases, accent bias is directly related to government policy. Since the 1860s, the Japanese government has modernised the country with a focus on Tokyo, says Shigeko Kumagai, a linguist at Shizuoka University, Japan. “Thus, standard Japanese was established based on the speech of educated Tokyoites.” In contrast, the Tohoku dialect spoken in northern Japan became “the most stigmatised dialect in Japan”, says Kumagai. Its image is “rural, rustic, old, stubborn, narrow-minded, backward, poor, uneducated, etc”. Young women from Tohoku are often given discriminatory treatment that makes them feel ashamed of their accents.

        A pesquisa de Kumagai mostra que a forte estereotipagem do dialeto Tohoku é perpetuada pela concentração da indústria de mídia na capital japonesa. De fato, em todo o mundo, a mídia tem um impacto enorme na percepção dos sotaques. Portanto, entendemos por que a preponderância de emissoras do Reino Unido em Londres provavelmente contribuiu para a marginalização do sotaque galês de MurphyKumagai’s research shows that the strong stereotyping of the Tohoku dialect is perpetuated by the concentration of the media industry in the Japanese capital. Indeed, the world over, the media has an enormous impact on perceptions of accents. So we understand why the preponderance of UK broadcasters in London likely contributed to the marginalisation of Murphy’s Welsh accent.

(Christine Ro. www.bbc.com, 08.05.2022. Adaptado)

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Because we all have different styles of teaching, and therefore planning, orientations about course planning and delivery should not be meant to be prescriptive. As Bailey (1996) points out, a lesson plan is like a road map “which describes where the teacher hopes to go in a lesson, presumably taking the students along”. It is the latter part of this quote that is important for teachers to remember, because they may need to make “in-flight” changes in response to the actuality of the classroom. As Bailey (1996) correctly points out, “In realizing lesson plans, part of a skilled teacher’s logic in use involves managing such departures to maximimize teaching and learning opportunities”. Clearly thought-out lesson plans will more likely maintain the attention of students and increase the likelihood that they will be interested.

(RICHARDS, Jack C.; RENANDYA, Willy A.(Ed.). Methodology in language teaching: an anthology of current practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. p. 36. Adaptado)