Questões de Concurso Sobre aspectos linguísticos | linguistic aspects em inglês

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      In a research project at the University of Illinois, US, Savignon (1972) adopted the term ‘communicative competence’ to characterize the ability of classroom language learners to interact with other speakers, to make meaning, as distinct from their ability to recite dialogs or perform on discrete-point tests of grammatical knowledge.

      At a time when pattern practice and error avoidance were the rule in language teaching, this study of classroom acquisition of language looked at the effect of practice on the use of coping strategies as part of an instructional program. By encouraging students to ask for information, to seek out clarification, or to use whatever linguistic or nonlinguistic resources they could gather to negotiate meaning and stick to the communicative task at hand, teachers were invariably leading learners to take risks and speak in other than memorized patterns.

      Test results at the end of the instructional period showed conclusively that learners who practiced communication in place of laboratory pattern drills performed with no less accuracy on discrete-points tests of grammatical structure. On the other hand, their communicative competence as measured in terms of fluency, comprehensibility, effort and amount of communication in unrehearsed oral communication tasks significantly surpassed that of learners who had had no such practice. Learners’ reactions to the test formats added further support to the view that even beginners respond well to activities that let them focus on meaning rather than formal features.

(Sandra J. Savignon. Communicative language teaching for the twenty-first century. In: Marianne Celce-Murcia. Teaching English as a second or foreign language. Adaptado)

Para responder à questão, considere o texto abaixo. 

Bill Introduction Limits. State legislators are faced with two conflicting pressures. On the one hand, lawmakers are asked to sponsor a great deal of legislation because constituents and interest groups insist “there ought to be a law” for every public problem. , legal provisions specify the length of time that most legislative bodies may remain in session. The ability to consider a steadily increasing volume of bills is not necessarily compatible with restricted session time. In response, many chambers have experimented with ways to curb the amount of legislation that enters the process. The most direct approach is to set a numerical limit on bill introductions. 

                     Read the following article and answer question

Can Allergies Cause Coughing — Or Is It Just A Cold?

Important q: Is it phlegmy or dry?

BY CASSIE SHORTSLEEVE

No matter why it's happening, a cough is always annoying—it's loud, it's uncomfortable, and it never fails to garner unwanted attention.

But what's really behind that cough? Can allergies cause coughing — or do you just have an annoying cold?

Well, turns out, there are some pretty distinct differences between allergy coughs and cold coughs...

Just curious: Why do we cough, anyway? "The purpose of a cough is to help us," says Monica Lee, MD, an otolaryngologist at Massachusetts Eye and Ear. It’s your body’s way of trying to expel something it perceives as a threat in the airway, she says.

Those perceived threats can be a bunch of different things: a piece of food stuck in your throat, pollen, air pollution, or swelling or drainage from extra mucus in your throat. All those things irritate the sensory fibers in your airway, which then stimulate a cough.

As for what exactly happens in your body during a cough? It's kind of complex, says Dr. Lee. Basically, your vocal chords close briefly to generate pressure in the lungs. Once enough pressure is built up, your vocal chords open back up, and air flows quickly through your voice box, which generates that coughing sound. Kinda cool, huh?

7So...can allergies cause coughing? Give it to me straight. In short, yes. Usually, allergies create dry coughs (it’s a direct reaction to something you’re sensitive or allergic to in the airways). If that's the case, you’ll likely have other symptoms (think: itchy, watery eyes; a runny nose; an itchy throat; and sneezing, says Dr. Lee). Headaches and wheezing often come with allergies, too, according to the American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology.

Remind Me: When Is Allergy Season?

Timing's also a factor. If you're allergic to pollen (or your BFF's new adorable kitten), for example, you’ll likely notice symptoms (including your cough) almost immediately, or within an hour of being exposed. And those symptoms could last for hours after you've been exposed — even after the allergen isn't nearby anymore.

Coughs related to allergies are also dependent on patterns, so doctors always try to look at the big picture. Say you get a cough every single March. That could be a sign you're actually suffering from allergies, instead of the common cold. "You need to look at everything that's going on," says Paul Bryson, MD, an otolaryngologist at the Cleveland Clinic.

Your best defense for a cough from allergies? Antihistamines like Allegra, Claritin, and Zyrtec, which are all available over-the-counter. Other options include steroid nasal sprays and immunotherapy shots, which can work to regulate your body's response to allergens, instead of just relieving the symptoms.

How do I know my cough is from a cold?

You know how allergy coughs are typically on the drier side? Coughs from colds (or the flu) tend to be on the wetter side (that "wetness" is actually mucus your body which is trying to move out of your body, says Dr. Lee).

Coughs that come along with a cold usually come along with stuffiness, along with postnasal drip (a.k.a., mucus running down the back of your throat), which can cause a sore throat or chest discomfort. A low-grade fever may also signal a cold instead of allergies.

Colds aren't as immediate as allergies. Instead, they tend to develop over the course of a few days, says Dr. Bryson.

You can try a few different things to help relieve a cough. Decongestants can work for, well, congestion. And ingredients like dextromethorphan (found in many multi-symptom products like Vicks NyQuil Cold & Flu Nighttime Relief) can help ease the coughing itself. Just make sure you take any products as-directed. It should be said, however, that a dry cough isn't always allergies, just like a wet cough isn't always a cold. Allergies can plague your nose, for example, causing post-nasal drip (a wet cough), while mild colds might not leave you stuffed up enough to produce any phlegm.

Do I ever need to worry about a cough?

Something important to remember: A cough — no matter its cause — shouldn’t be your norm. Colds usually run their course within a couple of weeks, which means a cough associated with a cold should go away in about three weeks time (though some can linger on for as long as eight weeks), according to the U.S. National Library of Medicine. The length of an allergy-related cough will vary depending on how (if) you're treating it. But if you notice you’re still barking after two months of symptoms, see your doc. You could either be dealing with an allergy you’re not aware of (this is where an allergy test could come into play) or potentially suffering from another issue such as asthma (especially if you notice shortness of breath with any of your symptoms), reflux, pneumonia, or bronchitis, says Dr. Bryson. And if something (allergies or a pesky cold) is bothering you enough to disrupt your life, don't put off getting it checked out. If nothing else, seeing a doc will give you peace of mind and maybe even speed up your recovery time.

SOURCE:https://www.womenshealthmag.com/health/a26289646/co ughing-from-allergies-or-cold/. Access: 02/12/2019

                             What Is the Interactive Reading Model?

                                                                                                          by Alicia Anthony

The Interactive Reading Model, as developed by David E. Rumelhart in 1977, describes a model of the reading process and the way linguistic elements are processed and interpreted by the brain. The model combines both surface structure systems – the sensory, bottom-up portion of reading – with deep structure systems – the thinking, or top-down, aspects of reading – to build meaning and memory for all learners.

How it Works

Readers use both knowledge of word structure and background knowledge to interpret the texts they read. For example, a student who encounters an unknown word might use surface structure systems like graphophonic, or letter-sound, knowledge to decode the word. A different student might find it easier to use deep structure systems like semantic knowledge, such as meaning and vocabulary, to decode the same unknown word. Each student makes connections in different ways. This process validates and supports both methods of understanding, realizing that individuals process information in very different ways.

Benefits of Interactive Model

The most evident benefit of this model is the opportunity for the differentiation that it provides students. Students are not required to fit into a set mold or have identical skill sets to decode and interpret text. They are encouraged to use their own strengths to gain understanding and new information. When used in the classroom setting, students should be encouraged to share their knowledge with classmates or peers. This model allows the reader to bring his own background knowledge to reading and to interact with others to build meaning and memory from the text.

                  (http://everydaylife.globalpost.com/interactive-reading-model-13048.html)

Para responder à questão, leia o texto a seguir, que exemplifica estratégias de leitura, e assinale a alternativa que melhor completa cada uma das lacunas numeradas, considerando o sentido do texto e a norma-padrão da língua inglesa.

John is a conscientious student. When he is told he will 41 tested on the contents of Chapter 2 in the textbook, he looks 42 every unknown word in the dictionary in an effort to fix the information in his memory. Despite his extended preparations, he doesn’t do very well 43 the test, though he says he spent hours preparing. Lia, on the other 44 , excels on the exam, but she has approached the text in a very different way. Before she reads the chapter, she skims through it, looking at subheadings and graphics so as to give herself a general idea of what the text will be about. 45 she reads, she connects the material in the chapter to what she already knows. She frequently asks herself 46 about the text, looking back or ahead to link one part of the text to another. When she is puzzled by the content, she searches for clues in the 47 , tries to paraphrase, or considers what she knows about text 48 . In short, Lia is reading like an expert, 49 John is relying on just one technique. The difference between the two is in 50 use of reading strategies.

[Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice,

by Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Renandya (Eds.)]

Text 1:

How being bilingual can boost your career

Whether you’re fresh out of college or a seasoned executive, insiders agree that fluency in a second language can not only help you stand out among prospective employers, it can also open doors to opportunities that those without foreign language skills might miss. 

In today’s global economy, the ability to communicate in another language has become a significant advantage in the workforce. Research has found that people who speak at least one foreign language have an average annual household income that’s $10,000 higher than the household income of those who only speak English. And about 17 percent of those who speak at least one foreign language earn more than $100,000 a year. 

A recent survey found that nearly 9 out of 10 headhunters in Europe, Latin America, and Asia say that being at least bilingual is critical for success in today’s business environment. And 66 percent of North American recruiters agreed that being bilingual will be increasingly important in the next 10 years. 

“In today’s global economy you really have to understand the way business is done overseas to maximize your potential. A second language equips you for that,” says Alister Wellesley, managing partner of a Connecticut-based recruiting firm. “If you’re doing business overseas, or with someone from overseas, you obtain a certain degree of respect if you’re able to talk in their native language.” 

Language skills can also be key for service industries. At the Willard InterContinental Washington, a luxury hotel a few blocks from the White House, a staff of about 570 represents 42 nations, speaking 19 languages. The Willard’s front-of-house employees such as the concierge speak at least two languages. Bilingualism is not an absolute requirement, but it is desirable, according to Wendi Colby, director of human resources. 

Workers with skills in a second language may have an edge when it comes to climbing Willard’s professional ladder. “The individual that spoke more languages would have a better chance for a managerial role, whatever the next level would be,” Colby says. “They are able to deal with a wide array of clients, employees.” 

So which languages can give you a leg up on the job market? Insiders agree the most popular – and marketable – languages are Spanish, German, French, Italian, Russian and Japanese, with a growing emphasis on Mandarin, given China’s booming economy. So let’s learn Mandarin!

“We see demand from a full range of industries,” says Wellesley. “Actually it depends on which company you’re working for and the country in which they’re located.” 

Adapted from: LATHAM-KOENIG, Christina & OXENDEN, Clive. American English File 5. 2nd edition. Oxford: OUP, 2018.