Questões de Concurso Comentadas por alunos sobre advérbios e conjunções | adverbs and conjunctions em inglês

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      In a research project at the University of Illinois, US, Savignon (1972) adopted the term ‘communicative competence’ to characterize the ability of classroom language learners to interact with other speakers, to make meaning, as distinct from their ability to recite dialogs or perform on discrete-point tests of grammatical knowledge.

      At a time when pattern practice and error avoidance were the rule in language teaching, this study of classroom acquisition of language looked at the effect of practice on the use of coping strategies as part of an instructional program. By encouraging students to ask for information, to seek out clarification, or to use whatever linguistic or nonlinguistic resources they could gather to negotiate meaning and stick to the communicative task at hand, teachers were invariably leading learners to take risks and speak in other than memorized patterns.

      Test results at the end of the instructional period showed conclusively that learners who practiced communication in place of laboratory pattern drills performed with no less accuracy on discrete-points tests of grammatical structure. On the other hand, their communicative competence as measured in terms of fluency, comprehensibility, effort and amount of communication in unrehearsed oral communication tasks significantly surpassed that of learners who had had no such practice. Learners’ reactions to the test formats added further support to the view that even beginners respond well to activities that let them focus on meaning rather than formal features.

(Sandra J. Savignon. Communicative language teaching for the twenty-first century. In: Marianne Celce-Murcia. Teaching English as a second or foreign language. Adaptado)

                     Read the following article and answer question

Can Allergies Cause Coughing — Or Is It Just A Cold?

Important q: Is it phlegmy or dry?

BY CASSIE SHORTSLEEVE

No matter why it's happening, a cough is always annoying—it's loud, it's uncomfortable, and it never fails to garner unwanted attention.

But what's really behind that cough? Can allergies cause coughing — or do you just have an annoying cold?

Well, turns out, there are some pretty distinct differences between allergy coughs and cold coughs...

Just curious: Why do we cough, anyway? "The purpose of a cough is to help us," says Monica Lee, MD, an otolaryngologist at Massachusetts Eye and Ear. It’s your body’s way of trying to expel something it perceives as a threat in the airway, she says.

Those perceived threats can be a bunch of different things: a piece of food stuck in your throat, pollen, air pollution, or swelling or drainage from extra mucus in your throat. All those things irritate the sensory fibers in your airway, which then stimulate a cough.

As for what exactly happens in your body during a cough? It's kind of complex, says Dr. Lee. Basically, your vocal chords close briefly to generate pressure in the lungs. Once enough pressure is built up, your vocal chords open back up, and air flows quickly through your voice box, which generates that coughing sound. Kinda cool, huh?

7So...can allergies cause coughing? Give it to me straight. In short, yes. Usually, allergies create dry coughs (it’s a direct reaction to something you’re sensitive or allergic to in the airways). If that's the case, you’ll likely have other symptoms (think: itchy, watery eyes; a runny nose; an itchy throat; and sneezing, says Dr. Lee). Headaches and wheezing often come with allergies, too, according to the American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology.

Remind Me: When Is Allergy Season?

Timing's also a factor. If you're allergic to pollen (or your BFF's new adorable kitten), for example, you’ll likely notice symptoms (including your cough) almost immediately, or within an hour of being exposed. And those symptoms could last for hours after you've been exposed — even after the allergen isn't nearby anymore.

Coughs related to allergies are also dependent on patterns, so doctors always try to look at the big picture. Say you get a cough every single March. That could be a sign you're actually suffering from allergies, instead of the common cold. "You need to look at everything that's going on," says Paul Bryson, MD, an otolaryngologist at the Cleveland Clinic.

Your best defense for a cough from allergies? Antihistamines like Allegra, Claritin, and Zyrtec, which are all available over-the-counter. Other options include steroid nasal sprays and immunotherapy shots, which can work to regulate your body's response to allergens, instead of just relieving the symptoms.

How do I know my cough is from a cold?

You know how allergy coughs are typically on the drier side? Coughs from colds (or the flu) tend to be on the wetter side (that "wetness" is actually mucus your body which is trying to move out of your body, says Dr. Lee).

Coughs that come along with a cold usually come along with stuffiness, along with postnasal drip (a.k.a., mucus running down the back of your throat), which can cause a sore throat or chest discomfort. A low-grade fever may also signal a cold instead of allergies.

Colds aren't as immediate as allergies. Instead, they tend to develop over the course of a few days, says Dr. Bryson.

You can try a few different things to help relieve a cough. Decongestants can work for, well, congestion. And ingredients like dextromethorphan (found in many multi-symptom products like Vicks NyQuil Cold & Flu Nighttime Relief) can help ease the coughing itself. Just make sure you take any products as-directed. It should be said, however, that a dry cough isn't always allergies, just like a wet cough isn't always a cold. Allergies can plague your nose, for example, causing post-nasal drip (a wet cough), while mild colds might not leave you stuffed up enough to produce any phlegm.

Do I ever need to worry about a cough?

Something important to remember: A cough — no matter its cause — shouldn’t be your norm. Colds usually run their course within a couple of weeks, which means a cough associated with a cold should go away in about three weeks time (though some can linger on for as long as eight weeks), according to the U.S. National Library of Medicine. The length of an allergy-related cough will vary depending on how (if) you're treating it. But if you notice you’re still barking after two months of symptoms, see your doc. You could either be dealing with an allergy you’re not aware of (this is where an allergy test could come into play) or potentially suffering from another issue such as asthma (especially if you notice shortness of breath with any of your symptoms), reflux, pneumonia, or bronchitis, says Dr. Bryson. And if something (allergies or a pesky cold) is bothering you enough to disrupt your life, don't put off getting it checked out. If nothing else, seeing a doc will give you peace of mind and maybe even speed up your recovery time.

SOURCE:https://www.womenshealthmag.com/health/a26289646/co ughing-from-allergies-or-cold/. Access: 02/12/2019

Para responder à questão, leia o texto a seguir, que exemplifica estratégias de leitura, e assinale a alternativa que melhor completa cada uma das lacunas numeradas, considerando o sentido do texto e a norma-padrão da língua inglesa.

John is a conscientious student. When he is told he will 41 tested on the contents of Chapter 2 in the textbook, he looks 42 every unknown word in the dictionary in an effort to fix the information in his memory. Despite his extended preparations, he doesn’t do very well 43 the test, though he says he spent hours preparing. Lia, on the other 44 , excels on the exam, but she has approached the text in a very different way. Before she reads the chapter, she skims through it, looking at subheadings and graphics so as to give herself a general idea of what the text will be about. 45 she reads, she connects the material in the chapter to what she already knows. She frequently asks herself 46 about the text, looking back or ahead to link one part of the text to another. When she is puzzled by the content, she searches for clues in the 47 , tries to paraphrase, or considers what she knows about text 48 . In short, Lia is reading like an expert, 49 John is relying on just one technique. The difference between the two is in 50 use of reading strategies.

[Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice,

by Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Renandya (Eds.)]

Ask teachers what method they subscribe to, and most will answer either that they don’t follow a method at all, or that they are ‘eclectic’, and pick and choose from techniques and procedures associated with a variety of different methods. Some might add that, essentially, their teaching follows the principles laid down by the communicative approach, itself a mixed bag, embracing anything from drills to communicative tasks, and everything in between. But the concept of a single, prescriptive ‘method’ – as in the Direct Method or the Oral Method – seems now to be dead and buried.

The demise of method is consistent with the widely held view that we are now in a ‘post-method’ era. Thus, as long ago as 1983, Stern declared that ‘several developments indicate a shift in language pedagogy away from the single method concept as the main approach to language teaching’ (1983). One such development was the failure, on the part of researchers, to find any significant advantage in one method over another. As Richards (1990) noted, ‘studies of the effectiveness of specific methods have had a hard time demonstrating that the method itself, rather than other factors, such as the teacher’s enthusiasm, or the novelty of the new method, was the crucial variable’. …

Kumaravadivelu (1994) identified what he called the ‘postmethod condition’, a result of ‘the widespread dissatisfaction with the conventional concept of method’. Rather than subscribe to a single set of procedures, postmethod teachers adapt their approach in accordance with local, contextual factors, while at the same time being guided by a number of ‘macrostrategies’. Two such macrostrategies are ‘Maximise learning opportunities’ and ‘Promote learner autonomy’. …

Nevertheless, and in spite of the claims of the postmethodists, the notion of method does not seem to have gone away completely. In fact, it seems to be doggedly persistent, even if the term itself is often replaced by its synonyms. … This is a view echoed by Bell (2007) who interviewed a number of teachers on the subject, and concluded that ‘methods, however the term is defined, are not dead. Teachers seem to be aware of both the usefulness of methods and the need to go beyond them.’

On the other hand, in a recent paper, Akbari (2008) suggests that it is textbooks that have largely replaced methods in their traditional sense: ‘The concept of method has not been replaced by the concept of postmethod but rather by an era of textbook-defined practice. What the majority of teachers teach and how they teach ... are now determined by textbooks’.

(by Scott Thornbury – http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/ methods-post-method-metodos. Adaptado)